Slippers/Chaussons

 Another essential piece of winter equipment is the humble chausson (pronounced “Chas-on”) or slipper in English. Today we might call them “moccasin liners” or “booties”, they even really resemble a contemporary ankle sock. 

These slippers were issued historically along side nippes and stockings and also by themselves with moccasin. Steve Delisle and Suzanne Gousse mention them along with Garasault’s historical pattern for them.  Garasault’s pattern is little more than an outline of what the shape of chaussons was when cut out before they were sewed.

 Delisle describes the fabric as being molleton and mazamet also known as types of serge, or a “light twill weave woolen flannel fabric”.  Delisle also tells us that in 1747 1/3 aune (15 11/16 inches) of fabric was used per pair. Garsault mentions that serge came in 1/2 aune widths (23 5/16 inches). So each pair of chaussons requires a piece of  molleton or mazamet at least  1/3 aune by 1/2 aune (15 11/16 inches wide by 23 5/16 inches long).

From “The equipment of New France Militia 1740-1760.” By Steve Delisle. 

From “Costume in New France from 1740 to 1760: A Visual Dictionary” by André Gousse and Suzanne Gousse

Ok so, 

here is how I’ve made chassons, I’ve never seen an actual paper pattern offered anywhere but I’ve done a lot of trial and error with muslin in order to get the fit right. Scale the pattern you get that fits correctly up or down depending on what you want them for. I use thin wool chaussons in my souliers de boeuf in the summer and thick wool chaussons in my moccasins in the winter. 

The left side of the Garsault pattern  is the sole and part of the heel, the right side is the top part of the chausson and the remainder of the heel. 

The area circled in red is where your foot tracing would go on the pattern. 

Start with a tracing of your foot in newspaper or muslin fabric or some such such and do your best to draw that basic shape . You start by drawing around your foot tracing,you want a sort of bell shape.  Start the Chausson bell shape about 1/4 inch around your foot tracing. The bottom of the bell can an be about 2 inches  wider than your heel.

Cut that bell shape without cutting it away from your pattern material completely and flip it over and trace it. 

You should now have a shape like the McDonald’s arches.

Divide the chausson vertically and mark it with chalk etc. Measure an inch to the right and begin a line that goes to about the middle of the chausson pattern horizontally.

You will get the left hand edge of the M shape on the pattern that forms the top of the chausson and the opening to insert your foot when it’s finished. On the right hand side of the top do the same thing again.

Draw a V between these two lines with the point being half way between them to form the M shaped opening.

On the left hand sole side of the pattern we need to finish by making a w shape that will form the heel. Find the center of the heel side of the pattern and make a line an inch up from there. 

Complete the w by starting on the left hand corner of the sole and draw an arch from that corner,Y to the center, X. 

Then starting from the center X draw an arch that goes all the way to the left hand side of the M shaped opening marked with  Z.

Cut out all along the outside, and that is your basic chausson pattern. When making a pair be sure to flip the pattern over in order to get two different feet, a left and right.

Transfer to a muslin fabric to practice and get the fit right. Adjust as needed by basting your muslin together so then you can easily take out the stitches and trace that muslin onto paper or your fabric and use it as a pattern. 

I use a whip stich and wear the seams on the outside for comfort. If a bigger seam allowance is used the seams can also be flat felled. 

Left chausson right side 

Left chausson, left side

Back view of left chausson

Top view of both chaussons

For more information about keeping your feet warm in the colonial era see the article linked below by the illustrious Isaac Walters, “ “much fitter for the winters of this country” Insights into winter footwear for cold climate reenacting” 

https://frenchinwisconsin.couleetech.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2013/03/articlefootwear.pdf

Foot wraps/nippes

Nippes ( pronounced knee-pay) are possibly the least known or understood piece of equipment essential to the historical milicean. 

Nippes are foot wraps made to be stuffed into moccicans in the winter. It appears to be a practice adopted by Canadians from Indigenous techniques. 

Interestingly, there is a modern equivalent from the soviet army of the 20th century; portyanki. I’ve been unable to find another culture or military group in any era using foot wraps like this. So, without knowing the form that nippes took in the 18th century, I’ve chosen to extrapolate how nippes may have been used using the example of Soviet portyanki.

 Pictured below is a Soviet era explanation of how to wrap portyanki. 

François-Charles de Bourlamaque, the colonial and third in charge of French regular troops during the French and Indian war, issued:

 “1/2 aune of cradle blanket for moccasin liners”. 

Bourlamaque issued nippes along with 2 pairs of chassons which are wool slippers to be used as moccian liners. Some officers of the time period also issued nippes only, others seemed to issue chaussons only. At least two I know of, Bourlamaque and François Bigot specify nippes to be made from cradle blankets. 

Bigot gives his soldiers “1 cradle blanket for nippes to put in the shoes” which in my estimation is enough for two pairs of nippes.

Going by Bourlamaque’s list we get one half aune of cradle blanket, probably for just one pair. 

According to dictionary.com the word Aune is, “an old French unit of measure for fabrics, equivalent to about 47 inches (119 centimeters).” 

So 1/2 aune is about 23.5 inches. 

That is 23.5 inches of “cradle blanket.”

HBChearitage.ca defines the range of blankets “for children’s cribs” in an early 20th century advertisement pictured below. In  descending size order they are 2 1/2 points down to 1 point. The attached article seems to imply that the HBC sizes listed are consistant with ones from France in the mid 18th century and I’ve been unable to find another source for the size of cradle blankets as they relate to the 18th century in New France. 

https://www.hbcheritage.ca/things/fashion-pop/hbc-point-blanket

I’m assuming that the French army was issuing one point blankets as cradle blankets to be cut in half and issued to each man. I think this because it is the smallest, and thus cheapest, size. So my modern recreation here is an example of the smallest size for nippes.

The HBC measures a one point blanket as 32 inches wide by 46 inches long. 

So, about 23.5 inches by 32 inches for the total amount of fabric given to each person in my estimation. 

Which, would be one cradle blanket cut in half horizontally, because, one cradle blanket is about 1 aune long and 32 inches wide. That’s the total cloth issued to each soldier.

A modern recreation of the size of one, one point, cradle blanket.

If you fold your 1/2 aune of cradle blanket length wise you get two pieces that are 12 inches by 32 inches wide.

Folded width wise you get two pieces that are 16 inches by 23 inches. 

So to my mind you can make your nippes one of two ways.

I haven’t yet tested each size of nippes in the field but each size seems to give an equivalent amount of coverage once wrapped around the foot to me. Pictured below are my two feet, one wrapped in each size.

When I use moccicans in the winter I generally wear wool stockings with a pair or two of chaussons then wrap my feet in nippes and my feet have stayed warm and even dry! 

Although my treatment of nippes is largely speculative and includes cross cultural analysis to fill in the blind spots, I’m  confident that historical nippes would have taken a very similar form to what I’ve described. 

I’ve found nippes to be a very practical winter foot wrap, they can be dried quickly because it’s a simple piece of fabric, they stay tightly wrapped within the moccican, don’t chafe, and if the part of the nippe you’ve used for the bottom of your foot is wet you can re wrap it to have that part dry on the bottom of your foot. 

I would encourage you to safely experiment with nippes and winter moccicans! 

The lists of issued items from the 18th century I used were from The Equipment of New France Militia 1740-1760, by Steve Delisle and Mémoire Pour Messire François Bigot, ci-devant Intendant de Justice, Police, Finance & Marine en Canada, Accusé: Contre Monsieur le Procureur-Général du Roi en la Commission, Accusateur: Contenant l'Histoire de l'Administration du sieur Bigot dans la Colonie, & des Réfléxions générales sur cettes Administration, Volume 1 (Paris: P. Al. Le Prieur, 1763) 39-40.)

A Very Brave Behind a Tree Book Review

 Raiders from New FranceNorth American Forest Warfare Tactics, 17th–18th Centuries René Chartrand, Author, Adam Hook, illustrator 

This is an essential work for anyone reenacting the “French and Indian War”. It is particularly useful for anyone reenacting a milicean of that conflict. The subject matter Rene Chartrand chose to focus on is largely of the 17th century. This is especially interesting to us 18th century reenactors because it shows that this hybrid Indigenous- Canadian warfare had been happening,successfully, for over one hundred years before the war began, before any of our persona’s would have been called for service to the parish and king. This work is the lineage of the Raiders from New France passed down to the raiders of the 1700’s. 

Chartrand highlights the realities that it was Native Warriors and Canadian milice who almost single handedly carried out the will of France, sacrificing their own bodies in the process. Chartrand does not delve deep into the political motivations of the Indigenous population of New France and I would like to see a more detailed book written in this aspect.  Chartrand does acknowledge the vital role that Indigenous leaders played in the politics of  New France and the fact that they forged their own destinies alongside their  European counterparts as opposed to beneath them. 

The work is expertly illustrated by Adam Hook whose illustrations are clearly deeply researched and highlight Interesting pieces of the story. His illustrations are not only informative but convey fierce emotion, showcasing the brutality of these hundreds of years old events. 

The adoption of First Nations techniques and the blending of 16th century European naval equipment along with a distinct home team advantage and the cooperation of the people in New France are what Chartrand argues led to the often overlooked military brilliance of the Raiders from New France.

Hard Times/Les temps difficiles

 Let’s face it, times have been hard in recent years. Everyone has had to find ways to make their money work. The same was true 267 years ago. This is a little experiment based on the words below. It is currently a flawed experiment due to the leveling method I used which is ahistorical.  In the future I intend to retry the experiment using historically correct levin. 

For now I wanted to get the general idea of what this is all about in an accessible way. I used dried split green peas because they were on hand. I ground  a heaping cup or so of dried green peas, stirred and ground and repeated in my food processor until a lumpy flour was achieved. I also used all purpose white flour because that is also what I had on hand. Remember folks the theme of this experiment is famine and making do. 

November 22 1756 (p.71-72) The journal of M.Bougainville

“As the year has been a very bad one, they are mixing peas with the flour in making bread,two quarts of peas to two quarts of flour; at first they wanted to mix oats with it. The mixture worked well and the bread was better. But the oats produced almost no flour, it only gave bran.“A police regulation has ruled here that bread will be distributed to the public only in the afternoon. I went to see this distribution. It presents the image of a famine. They fight to get near the wicket through which they pass the bread. Those who cannot get near hold out their permits on a stick.”

1 loaf

Mix one cup dried split yellow or green pea flour and one cup wheat flour 

Prepare yeast packet to package instructions

Mix 3/4 cup water with 1 tbsp yeast preparation and 2/3 cup flour mix

Beat 100 times and let sit covered 1 hour

It will thicken to an oatmeal like consistency.Add salt about a 1/2 tablespoon. Add the remaining flour 1/3 cup at a time until a workable dough forms that is really sticky but firm.

Turn out onto a floured surface and lightly knead until smooth, about 3 or 4 minutes, adding just enough flour as required to prevent sticking. Form into a little round loaf and place in buttered bowl, cover and let rise in a warm place for an hour or two. It won’t do much.

Baste with water prior to putting in the oven. Place on buttered baking sheet and bake in an oven pre-heated to 400°F (200°C)  and turned down to 375°F for one 50-60 minutes 

Or until the outside is a rich brown and the bottom is hallow when tapped. 

That’s what I did. I’ll let you know how it goes once I cut into it and eat some.

It was bread for sure. The crust was tough and difficult to cut into. The crumb was dry but cooked through and crumbly. Something like a modern muffin but less moist. The water amount cold be adjusted or milk added possibly to make it more soft. The pea taste was not pronounced but was more of an aftertaste. While eating it I was thinking that especially since if I hadn’t had a pice of actual bread in a while it would be quite welcome. 

I think that it would travel well and that I would make it again, but I’m very glad that I eat soft wheaten bread everyday in my modern life. 

A hanky for your head/un mouchoir pour ta tête

 For anyone reenacting a Canadian milicean  during the Seven Years War in America during the summer, being too hot can be common place. 

We know what a typical allotment of clothing would have been in the summer from  various sources but this one is from Bougainville in 1757:

One capote 

One blanket 

One wool stocking cap

2 cotton shirts

One pair of wool leggings 

I breechcloth

The wool stocking cap or toque can be worn even in the hottest of weather. You can get it sopping wet and let the water evaporate and cool your head. You can flip some of the bulk up to create a sort of brim but let’s face it a double thick knit wool cap can be murder in the summer. There are of course practical applications for a toque in the summer, especally at night or in inclement weather. Would the milice have gone bare headed in the summer? Probably not.

For social and religious reasons 18th century French Canadians would have been compelled to cover their heads while in public. If they weren’t issued an alternate head coverings what did they do when it was just too hot for a toque? 

The written record is quite clear we can see that from Detroit to parts farther north the practice of wearing a hanky on your head was quite commonplace and notable enough to be written about in multiple observations of Canadians. Here is a list compiled by Ryan Clark:

“…& about sixty militiamen with a kerchief on their heads and wearing shirts and their backsides bare in the Canadian style.” - Pierre Pouchot (1755-60)

"it is not uncommon to see a Frenchman with Indian shoes and stockings, without breeches,wearing a strip of woolen cloth to cover what decency requires him to conceal. Yet at the same time he wears a fine ruffled shirt, a laced waistcoat with a fine handkerchief on his head." Carver near Detroit 1766

Alexander Henry leaving native captivity, 1761,  “Being now no longer in the society of Indians, I laid aside the dress, putting on that of a Canadian: A molton or blanket coat, over my shirt; and a handkerchief about my head, hats being very little worn in this country.”

An 1811 description of Canadians by Henry Breckinridge Shows that styles had not changed much in fifty years, he says:

 “we still see a few of both sexes in their ancient hibailaments - capotes, moccicans, blue handkerchiefs on their heads, a pipe in their mouth, and their hair tied up in a long que.” 

From these descriptions it seems as through the practice of wearing a hanky wrapped around the head in lieu of other kinds of hats were worn in tandem with combinations of simple shirts, loincloths, leggings, and capotes, exactly the kind of clothes being issued to milice by Bougainville.

The pictorial record is much more scant. Hardly any representations from the 1740’s-60’s exist of Canadians and only one potentially shows a Canadian with a hanky on his head.

The figure on the left wearing at red mantlet or veste in the  Ex-voto à Sainte Anne et à Saint Antoine, may be wearing a hanky tied onto his head, or he may be bare headed. Also notice that the man on the left appears to have a black handkerchief tied around his neck, a white one on the man on the right and exclusively white ones around the necks of the women.

In the ex-voto Notre-Dame-de-Liesse Rivière-Ouelle probably painted in 1745, we see these gentleman wearing black handkerchiefs wrapped around their necks. 

For the next best thing we can look to Europe. the painter Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin (1699-1779) depicts a probable hanky wearer in “the cellar boy” ca. 1738. 

Note that he is working hard in his shirtsleeves while he has a hanky tied onto his head and no hanky around his neck, possibly he has tied the one from his neck onto his head? 

Chardin also showed himself wearing a hanky tied up with a ribbon and one draped around his neck in 1771

A French drawing by Claude Simpol in 1760 shows the seated man pouring drinks dressed down in his shirtsleeves with a hanky tied around his head with the knot in front.

Another likely hanky wearer is this man relaxing on a bench in this circa 1743  from “The humors of a wrapping landlady” 

Nathan Kobuck also identified some hanky wearers depicted in 18th century media:

Check out his fantastic blog The Buffalo Trace 1765
http://thebuffalotrace1765.blogspot.com/search?updated-max=2020-05-03T17:35:00-07:00&max-results=7&reverse-paginate=true&start=5&by-date=false&m=1

From these depictions we can begin to see a theme of the hanky being tied up with the knot in the front or side of the head, most often without the tied ends flowing down ones back like modern depictions of pirates. And of course wrapped around the neck or draped across the shoulders of both men and women.

My question is then if they weren’t issued handkerchiefs where did the milice get them in order to wrap around their heads or their necks? 

The real answer is, we don’t know. My best guess is that they brought them from home. 

Four out of  twelve inventories of people’s goods for postmortem sale contained in Costume in New France from 1740-1760: A Visual Dictionary by Suzanne and André Gousse list kerchieves: 

“Six white kerchieves”

“One pair of socks, one towel, one old kercheif” 

“Six kerchieves of muslin”

“Six muslin kerchieves”

“Theee kerchieves of Indian cotton”

“Four white kerchieves”

“Forty three kerchieves of Filoselle” {filoselle, the portion of a silk cocoon that is not used for good quality silk cloth or yarn because the filaments are damaged or broken.}

“Nine kerchieves of silk twill”

“Nine kerchieves of silk”

Sale of goods of Jacques Charly merchant, ca.1747, Montreal. Note that this sale likely includes his merchant stores as well as personal items. 

“Seven small cotton kerchieves”

Inventory of Charles Dufraux de Lajemerias, a present ca. 1750 Vercheres 

“One expectation (an unknown word) [sic] wool belt and one neckercheif”

Inventory of Genevieve Benoist dit l’hivernois widow of Francois Tetro dit ducharme, ca.1751, Richelieu 

“Six dozens of kierchieves”

Inventory of Marie Elizabeth Rocbert widow of Claude Michel Begon ca. 1756, Montreal

These kerchieves  are described  as “cotton”, “Indian cotton”, “muslin”, “silk”, “silk twill”, and “ Filoselle” for materials. No colors other than white are listed, although we can speculate that “Indian cotton” may have referred  to a dyed or printed textile from India. In one description they are listed as “small”, one “old” and one specifically as a “neckerchief”.

In the same book the French word for “neckercheif” is listed as “Fichu”, a term generally used for women’s neck coverings but also applicable to men’s neckercheifs. 

A modern French equivalent for “kerchief” is “foulard” and a modern equivalent for the term “handkerchief” is “mouchoir”. According to the Gousses “mouchoir de cou” was a 18th century term for a neckercheif or “fichu”. They are defined as “ milliners term, these kerchieves are made from silk with a satan sheen but with no wrong side, with prints showing on both sides. Only ordinary women uses these neckerchieves to wrap around their shoulders. ... in Normandy, there are some in plain white, striped or checked linen (coloured threads on plain ground) , in Indian cloth, in plain, striped or embroidered muslin, in plain or printed silk.” 

 Wether linen, cotton , or silk it seems as though from the available pictorial and written record that they were quite large and black, white, or any of the available prints from India. It seems from the historical record that in the heat of summer it is perfectly acceptable for a milicean to take his “mouchoir de cou”, whatever that looked like, and to tie it around his head. Was the term then “mouchoir de tête”? That is pure speculation.

Finally, I leave you with some of my interpretations of how to wear a hanky on your head.

The red scarf is from AHL, Naval Clothier who I cannot recommend highly enough!

https://www.facebook.com/AHLTailorNavalClothier?mibextid=LQQJ4d