This is an attempt to combine the best known first person quotes and contemporary artwork depicting French Canadian milice and civilian men in general during the period of the Seven Years War in America, approximately 1754-1763.
One of the few images of Canadian men and women in our era is The Votive of the Shipwreck at Lévis,1754.
Votive of the Shipwreck at Lévis, anonymous, 1754, oil on wood panel, 32.4 x 52.1 cm (courtesy Musée Historical, Basilique Sainte-Anne).
https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/votive-painting
The men and women in this image wear exemplary clothing from the era. Note that European and Canadian men, like their Indigenous counterparts, were clean shaven. It would not be fashionable to wear any kind of facial hair in the region for another century.
The basic clothing for men from head to toe began with the toque, a red knit cap. Three quotes which speak to the commonality of the toque in new France compiled by Jeff Pavlik are:
“Most of them wear red woolen caps at home and sometimes on their journey.”
Pehr Kalm, Canada, 1749
“All Canadians speak the same French we do. Except for some typical words,…they have forged some such as tuque or fourole to name a cap of red wool.”
Jean-Baptiste d’Alcyrac, Canada, 1755-60
“ worn by such of the Canadians…a large, red, milled worsted cap.”
Alexander Henry (Elder), Lake Huron, 1761
A shirt of natural linen or cotton , a neckerchief commonly of silk or cotton tied around the neck with layers of gilet- sleeved Or unsleeved vests cut straight across at the waist, over that a mantlet or sleeved waistcoat reaching to mid thigh with breeches, stockings and shoes which could be European style lasted shoes, ox hide soliers de beouf or moccasins. Not shown in this image was the hooded capote worn universally by French Canadian men well into and beyond the 19th century.
In the votive at Lévis it is difficult to discern if the man on the left has no hat and his hair is depicted or if he is possibly wearing a kerchief tied around his head. He is clean shaven. He wears a red justacorps , a commonly styled coat,lined in white over a yellow mantlet. He has a black kerchief tied around his neck over a white shirt collar. His ruffled shirt cuffs or perhaps just the bulk of his shirtsleeves pokes out from under his justacorps sleeves. He wears light gray or white breeches, white stockings and black shoes-likely typical European style shoes of the time period.
The man on the right is clean shaven. He wears a red toque on his head. He may have a white handkerchief tied around his neck or it may be that his outer garment is open and the white shirt shows underneath. The gray or white upper body garment he wears is probably some sort of camesole. A gilet-like garment typically worn under other outer garments but the front is constructed of one solid piece instead of being a vest that buttons. Instead the top opens and closes with just four buttons at the neck. He wears brown breeches. He may be in just his black stockings, his shoes having been taken by the water, or he could be wearing black stockings and black shoes.
Drawn by Richard Short, engraved by James Mason. Vue de l'orphelinat ou du couvent des Ursulines, depuis les Remparts. Signed:L. c. below image, Drawn on the SPOT by R. Short Engraved by James Mason; b. c., Sep.r 1st, 1761, Published according to Act of Parliament by R. Short...ink, watercolor, laid paper, public domain. https://collections.musee-mccord-stewart.ca/fr/objects/39648/a-view-of-the-orphans-or-urseline-nunnery-taken-from-the-r?ctx=9e9d71055d6187595237b78b2c99f4ec116e6ab8&idx=3
In this engraving by Short and Mason we can see typical, common, Canadian clothing. These are inhabitants of Quebec City. Although 1761 is at the end of the scope of our study the general Canadian way of dress held consistencies over time since the early 18th century.
Detail Short and Mason. In this image we see a typical Canadian Family. The man is clean shaven. He wears a toque, mantlet, breeches, stockings and shoes. Probably either soliers de beouf or lasted shoes. The woman wears a cap, the collar and cuffs of her mantlet reveal the edges of her shift, her petticoats are topped by an apron. She wears European style shoes.the child wears a gown which was common for both boys and girls in Europe and New France until the age of potty training was reached and boys would wear breeches and girls would wear petticoats like adults typically between ages 2 to 8.
Detail Short and Mason. This couple and their dog are likewise typically dressed. The seated woman wears a cap and fichu, a mantlet apron and petticoats complete the ensemble. The gentleman appears to be bare headed with short shorn hair. He is clean shaven. He wears a sleeved gilet or a short mantlet. He wears breeches with stockings and shoes.
ex-voto Notre-Dame-de-Liesse Rivière-Ouelle
Probably 1745, oil, anynomous.
One of the few images from the period showing French Canadian men wearing what can only be described as capotes is the ex-voto Notre-Dame-de-Liesse Rivière-Ouelle which resides in a remote church in Quebec. Another benefit of this painting is that it depicts hunters.
Explained well in a radio Canada article ;“The story told by Father Casgrain, it would be in fact that these three characters would have lost their way in the forest during the winter, following a compass which would have been inadvertently dropped in the snow. The two companions of the young man in prayer would have ended up freezing to death, and one of the two companions would have been his father. [This one] would have recommended to his son to invoke the good Blessed Virgin to be saved miraculously, by making the commitment precisely to offer an ex-voto if ever his prayer was answered, tells Claude La Charité, professor of history literary at the University of Quebec at Rimouski.”
The three men have long hair worn loose and are clean shaven. They wear black handkerchiefs tied around their necks, sleeved mantlet, breeches, leggings, moccasins, with capotes on top. These men are probably upper class if they could have an ex Voto painting commissioned for the church. Their capotes have deep boot cuffs characteristic of the first half of the 18th century and are well tailored with pleated side vents. They wear sashes to close the double breasted capotes that appear to be fingerwoven sashes of indigenous make.
Once again due to her supernatural representation, Mary the mother of Jesus is exempt from our historical discussion.
Detail of ex-voto Notre-Dame-de-Liesse Rivière-Ouelle.
In addition to what was mentioned above one written example stands out in particular and tells us a lot about what was considered publicly appropriate. Orders to milita captains by Monsieur de Noyan at the request of the parish priest of Varennes, 1756 ; “(do not) let any militiaman come [to a religious procession] wearing only a mantelet and a tuque, when they are certain that these people have capots and hats at home.”
P.J. Miller’s attempt at recreating the contrast in dress that Monsieur de Noyan’s orders highlighted about appropriate clothing at a religious procession for milicean. Photo Credit Amanda Miller.
The capote was essential in the harsh Canadian winter and as a reenactor I can attest that it is not a garment I enjoy wearing in any other season. It is likely that by “hat” a felt cocked hat was intended. Again in my experience they are an impractical and cumbersome garment.
Speaking of French Canadians generally in 1749 Swedish naturalist Pehr Kalm observed:
“Many nations imitate the French customs; yet I observed, on the contrary, that the French in Canada, in many respects, follow the customs of the Indians, with whom they converse everyday. They make use of the tobacco pipes, shoes, garters, and girdles of the Indians.”
“Canadiens on the warpath or traveling for the fur trade adopted the breechclout of the Natives very early on to replace the cumbersome breeches… The shirt being quite long, the breechclout would completely disappear under it. Which may explain the fuss made by Bishop Saint-Vallier in 1719. Answering a complaint from local priests as he was just returning from France, Saint-Vallier was upset that his flock was going to work in the fields “with only their shirts on, wearing no breeches and no underpants during the summer in order to alleviate the heat.” This quote from the Gousse siblings in Costume in New France sums up the working, traveling, and fighting summer dress for Canadian men in New France.
The clothing provided to milicean by the French monarchy was essentially the clothing they would have chosen to wear anyway. d’Aleyrac, 1755-60 explained exactly what they were given “Those who go to war receive a capot, two cotton shirts, one breechclout, one pair of leggings, one blanket, one pair of souliers de boeuf, a wood-handled knife, a worm and a musket when they do not bring any. The breechclout is a piece of broadcloth draped between the thighs in the Native manner and with the two ends held by a belt. One wears it without breeches to walk more easily in the woods.”
Pierre Pouchot described their look this way;“…about sixty militiamen with a kerchief on their heads and wearing shirts and their backsides bare in the Canadian style.”
Anonymous, Habillement des Coureurs de bois Canadiens, no. 2, drawing, ca. 1730?, Yale University Library, https://collections.library.yale.edu/catalog/2001154
The image of the Habillement des Coureurs de bois Canadiens, exemplifies the unique Canadian style described through the time period. Not Milicean but someone with all the same skills. There has been much written about Coureurs de bois but in short; they were Canadian men who were voyageurs in business for themselves woth no permissions or liscenced to trade goods for furs. It is either one person from three views or three people in one view. Each figure wears a double breasted capote which has simple buttoned slashed sleeves, tied shut with a sash and slit pouches suspended from them, they have shirts on beneath the capotes, two have no leggings or shoes and the one with the hood up on the far left wears leggings and moccasins.
This valuable image also shows Canadians smoking tobacco.
Smoking tobacco was commonplace for women and men in French and Native communities alike. Stone indigenous type and clay European pipes were both used.
Jean Babtiste de Aleyrac describes Canadian habits:
“The Canadians have an extreme passion for brandy and smoking tobacco. It is a home practice to drink a big shot of brandy when waking up, and the same for ladies. The men smoke a black stone calumet. The children of seven or eight years drink and smoke the same. A bottle of Brandy is done in a single sitting. With wine we do not make such debauchery. But one spends the whole day smoking; many have the habit of smoking in bed.”
Stone pipe bowl or calumet in French. In Ticonderoga's Collections: An Introduction
https://fortticonderoga.pastperfectonline.com/webobject/59B49D80-4685-4F01-9FD0-464430583009
These Native style pipe bowls would have had wooden stems made from pithy local wood like sumac. Natives and Canadians manufactured such pipes at home.
Tattooing was also common for those French Canadians who were engaged as workers in the fur trade called voyageurs. Especially those who wintered over in western trading posts where the indigenous population was higher than in the East. It is likely that Indigenous cultural influence and a desire to have their bodies easily identified if they were to drown while working contributed to this adoption of tattooing for this specific social class.
In October 8, 1758 Louis-Antoine, Comte de Bougainville, aide de camp to the Marquis de Montcalm overall commander of French Forces in Canada described the Canadians arriving at Carillon {Known today as Fort Ticonderoga};
”…950 Canadians, and this detachment is composed of the good kind, almost all voyageurs. One recognizes them easily by their looks, by their size, and because all of them are tattooed on their bodies with figures of plants or animals. The operation is long and painful. The figure is outlined by pricking the skin with a needle and printed in by burning powder in the holes. One would not pass for a man among the Indians of the Far West if he had not had himself tattooed.” In other accounts tattoos of the body are mentioned but there are no accounts of Canadians with facial tattoos.
Finally, perhaps the most important image in our study. This is an image actually of a Canadian militiaman and is dated to 1722 by the Canadian Archives. Excepting the “tapaboard” style cloth hat this man is dressed exactly as the “courior de bois” pictured above. Capote, shirt, leggings and Moccicans. Note in each picture the men are equipped with small pouches and tomahawks suspend from their sashes.
Further reading
B., J.-C, and Andrew Gallup. Memoir of a French and Indian War Soldier. Westminster, MD: Heritage Books, 2007.
Bartram, John, and Pehr Kalm. Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice Made by Mr. John Bartram, in His Travels from Pensilvania Sic to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, in Canada: To Which Is Annex'd a Curious Account of the Cataracts at Niagara by Mr. Peter Kalm, a Swedish Gentleman Who Travelled There. London: J. Whiston & B. White, 1751.
Bougainville, Louis-Antoine de, and Edward Pierce Hamilton. Adventure in the Wilderness: the American Journals of Louis Antoine De Bougainville, 1756-1760. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990.
Colonialbaker.net
Francis Millville-Deschênes, The Soldier Off Duty, Parks Canada 1987 1-111 http://www.parkscanadahistory.com/series/saah/soldieroffduty.pdf
Gousse, Suzanne, and André Gousse. Costume in New France from 1740 to 1760: A Visual Dictionary. Chambly, Québec: Fleur de Lyse, 1998.
Misty May Jackson, Classifications by Historical Archeologists and Eighteenth Century Montreal Merchants and Military Personnel in New France: Emic and Etic Approaches posted to Academia.edu, Academia. June 3rd 2021. https://www.academia.edu/33232515/CLASSIFICATIONS_BY_HISTORICAL_ARCHAEOLOGISTS_AND_EIGHTEENTH_CENTURY_MONTREAL_MERCHANTS_AND_MILITARY_PERSONNEL_IN_NEW_FRANCE_EMIC_AND_ETIC_APPROACHES
Pierre Pouchot. Memoirs on the Late War in North America between France and England 2004 ed.
https://sites.google.com/view/livinginhistory/french-in-wisconsin-archives
Steve Delisle. The equipment of New France Militia 1740-1760. Bel-Air MD.:Kebecca Liber Ata Company, 1999
